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High Indoor Air Pollution in a Developing Megacity: The Role of Outdoor PM2.5 and Household Characteristics
Exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) poses major health risks, especially in rapidly urbanizing cities. As urbanization accelerates, people in low- and middle-income countries spend more time indoors, where pol We present evidence from over 152,000 monitor-hours of indoor PM2.5 measurements across homes in Jakarta, Indonesia, one of the world’s largest and most polluted cities. We find that mean daily indoor and outdoor PM2.5 levels are both dangerously high, eight times above World Health Organization’s (WHO) health-based guidelines. In addition, indoor PM2.5 frequently reach hazardous levels―40 to 100 times the WHO guideline, levels that outdoor monitors do not capture. Unlike in developed settings, most indoor pollution originates from outdoor infiltration. Survey data also reveal large inequalities: lower-income households experience double the mean indoor PM2.5 of higher-income households. Our findings show that indoor air pollution remains both severe and unequally distributed, even in this population where most people have adopted cleaner cooking fuels. Researchers and policymakers should integrate outdoor air quality mapping with demographically representative indoor monitoring to close key data gaps, enabling more accurate exposure estimates and better-targeted environmental health policies.
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